Difference between revisions of "Attention"

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<p>The ability to effectively select and focus on a limited amount of information from the continuous plethora of available information is critical to learning,<ref name=“Oakes2002”> Oakes, Lisa M. <em>et. al.</em> (December 2002). “Developmental Changes in Endogeneous Control of Attention: The Role of Target Familiarity on Infants&rsquo; Distraction Latency.” <em>Child Development</em>, vol. 73, no. 6, pp 1644-1655. [http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/content/bpl_images/Journal_Samples2/CDEV0009-3920~73~6/496.PDF <em> Article Link</em>]</ref> setting and achieving goals, <ref name=“Lavie2004” /> and higher-level functions including consciousness. <ref name=“Taylor2007” /> It allows us to take note of salient information, either from external or internal sources, and to block out distractions. <ref name=“Sarter2001” /> <ref name=“Commodari2017” /> It even gives rise to our sense of agency or free will.<ref name=”Wen2016”> Wen, Wen, <em>et. al.</em> (January 28, 2016). “Divided Attention and Processing Underlying Sense of Agency.” <em>Frontiers in Psychology</em>, vol. 7, no. 35, pp 1-8. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4729891/pdf/fpsyg-07-00035.pdf <em> Article Link</em>]</ref></p>  
 
<p>The ability to effectively select and focus on a limited amount of information from the continuous plethora of available information is critical to learning,<ref name=“Oakes2002”> Oakes, Lisa M. <em>et. al.</em> (December 2002). “Developmental Changes in Endogeneous Control of Attention: The Role of Target Familiarity on Infants&rsquo; Distraction Latency.” <em>Child Development</em>, vol. 73, no. 6, pp 1644-1655. [http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/content/bpl_images/Journal_Samples2/CDEV0009-3920~73~6/496.PDF <em> Article Link</em>]</ref> setting and achieving goals, <ref name=“Lavie2004” /> and higher-level functions including consciousness. <ref name=“Taylor2007” /> It allows us to take note of salient information, either from external or internal sources, and to block out distractions. <ref name=“Sarter2001” /> <ref name=“Commodari2017” /> It even gives rise to our sense of agency or free will.<ref name=”Wen2016”> Wen, Wen, <em>et. al.</em> (January 28, 2016). “Divided Attention and Processing Underlying Sense of Agency.” <em>Frontiers in Psychology</em>, vol. 7, no. 35, pp 1-8. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4729891/pdf/fpsyg-07-00035.pdf <em> Article Link</em>]</ref></p>  
 
<p>There is some disagreement among researchers and authors about the various functional aspects of attention. Such subdivisions are somewhat arbitrary and, at best, useful for conceptual purposes only. As the individual matures from infancy into adulthood the various aspects or functions of attention mature and begin to influence behavior at different rates. As the individual continues to mature, these various functions may then decline at differing rates. At all times throughout the life cycle, though, the individual is utilizing all his or her attentional resources as efficiently as possible. It is impossible to do otherwise.</p>
 
<p>There is some disagreement among researchers and authors about the various functional aspects of attention. Such subdivisions are somewhat arbitrary and, at best, useful for conceptual purposes only. As the individual matures from infancy into adulthood the various aspects or functions of attention mature and begin to influence behavior at different rates. As the individual continues to mature, these various functions may then decline at differing rates. At all times throughout the life cycle, though, the individual is utilizing all his or her attentional resources as efficiently as possible. It is impossible to do otherwise.</p>
−
<p>CFD therapists should, therefore, keep in mind that an individual's attention is a limited-resource, limited capacity, hybrid-autonomous system. As such, we understand the attentional system will naturally tend toward optimized resource utilization and maximized efficiency as it integrates with other primary cognitive functions. Thus, we do not attempt to isolate and develop the various attentional functions inasmuch as the overall attentional system will automatically adjust and switch and balance the functions despite our dedicated, arduous efforts. We instead concentrate on develop the subneworks (alerting, orienting, and executive control) as indicated by weak functional areas. For this reason it is vital for therapists to understand the functions as observable behaviors that should be mapped to their respective attention subnetworks.</p>
+
<p>CFD therapists should, therefore, keep in mind that an individual's attention is a limited-resource, limited capacity, hybrid-autonomous system. As such, we understand the attentional system will naturally tend toward optimized resource utilization and maximized efficiency as it integrates with other primary cognitive functions. Thus, we do not attempt to isolate and develop the various attentional functions inasmuch as the overall attentional system will automatically adjust and switch and balance the functions despite our dedicated, arduous efforts. We instead concentrate on develop the subnetworks (alerting, orienting, and executive control) as indicated by weak functional areas. For this reason it is vital for therapists to understand the functions as observable behaviors that should be mapped to their respective attention subnetworks.</p>
  
  

Revision as of 01:56, 25 September 2019

Attention is a well-researched cognitive function and, historically, is one of the most difficult to define. Four characteristics of attention make it a primary cognitive function for CFD therapy:

  • Structurally it is transcranial. By this, we mean to say there is no single structure within the brain that gives rise to attention. Rather attention arises from the integrated, timed, parallel interaction of different structures located in discrete regions throughout the brain. [1] [2] [3] Because of its transcranial nature, developing attention will necessarily stimulate development and efficiency across many brain centers.
  • Functionally it is many-facetted. The historical approach to studying attention is to analyze its contextual operations: selective, divided, sustained, and alternating attention. [1] [2] [4] [5] [6] [7] One or more contextual operations of attention are involved in every aspect of cognition and therefore plays a vital role in the manifestation of other cognitive functions.
  • Operationally it is comprised of interacting networks. The attentional networks – which themselves are transcranial – include alerting, orienting, and executive control. [1] [2] [4] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] These network operations play a critical role in selecting relevant information, disregarding the irrelevant, achieving goals, and so forth.
  • It gives rise to higher-order functions and even consciousness.[11] [12]

 

Neurology of Attention

Recent research and neuroimaging demonstrate that attention is a transcranial cognitive function, interacting with and having a mutual bi-directional dependency with the sensory system, working memory, long term memory, and higher cognitive functions. Here we consider the neurology of attention from the perspective of its principle operational networks.

Alerting Network

Alerting refers both to the ability to stay vigilant and to being “stimuli sensitive” in anticipation of “high priority” event or stimuli. [1] [6] For example, the driver in a car will (should) remain alert to changing traffic conditions whereas passengers may have little concern for such. Functionally the alerting network is strongly correlated to an individual’s sustained and focused attention (see below). [4] [7]

Two inter-related subnetworks are involved activated for alerting functions. Exogenous alerting – that is, alerting based on external stimuli received through the senses – is based on the so-called “phasic” operation of the locus coeruleus, which is a small region of the brain stem that is the source of norepinephrine. In its phasic operation, the locus coeruleus releases a large amount of norepinephrine which rapidly (i.e., in a timescale of milliseconds) signals the body to a state of high alert (e.g. the heightened sensitivity when you hear footsteps closing in behind you while walking along an unlit street). This subnetwork is also integrated with the anterior cingulate and the orbitofrontal cortices – structures involved in emotion, action, and intentions. [13]

The other subnetwork, endogenous maintenance – the ability to maintain vigilance and focus over time, is associated with activation of the fontal-parietal regions, particularly on the right hemisphere. [4]

Orienting Network

Orienting refers to the ability to select and prioritize specific input from the global set of external and internal stimuli / information that may be present at any given time. It is vital for the detection, engagement, and disengagement from attentional targets and is thus strongly related to selective, focused, sustained, and alternating attention functions (see below). [7] This selection of a subset of all information or stimuli present provides improved performance and the capacity for priority processing of the selected information, though at the cost of not being able to process or to store the deselected information. [1] [9]

The orienting system is one of two subsystems that subserve selective sustained attention. The orienting network matures during infancy and is eventually superseded by the executive control system sometime in late adolescence.[6] Thus, sustaining attention to an object or task – an activity which requires effort to inhibit orienting to irrelevant tasks or objects.

Orienting is linked to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. It is also linked to the superior parietal lobe, temporal parietal junction, and frontal eye fields. It is believed to be modulated by the basal forebrain.

Executive Control Network

The executive control network handles conflict resolution – that is, prioritizing between salient stimuli – controls divided and alternating attentional functions (see below), and is involved in assessing new situations or performing new tasks. [1]

Along with the orienting network, the executive control network is a subnetwork subserving selective sustained attention. There is also agreement among researchers that this system is necessary for selective and sustained attention, voluntary inhibition, and the directed exercise of working memory. Executive control is particularly implicated in attention / working memory tasks such as anticipating consequences, monitoring disruptions, modifying behavior, and other goal-directed behaviors.[6] [7]

Traditionally, top-down processes – such as the executive control attentional processes – are believed to be processed by the frontal lobes, particularly the prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate gyrus. Of interest, some researchers have noted that concussions in early childhood (i.e. before three years of age) have persistent difficulty with:[3]

  • Working memory,
  • Impulse control,
  • Error awareness,
  • Conflict awareness (i.e., the awareness that competing salient stimuli are being prioritized),
  • Allocation of attentional resources during updating of working memory, and
  • Other areas governed by the executive control network.

Functions of Attention

The ability to effectively select and focus on a limited amount of information from the continuous plethora of available information is critical to learning,[14] setting and achieving goals, [5] and higher-level functions including consciousness. [11] It allows us to take note of salient information, either from external or internal sources, and to block out distractions. [2] [7] It even gives rise to our sense of agency or free will.[15]

There is some disagreement among researchers and authors about the various functional aspects of attention. Such subdivisions are somewhat arbitrary and, at best, useful for conceptual purposes only. As the individual matures from infancy into adulthood the various aspects or functions of attention mature and begin to influence behavior at different rates. As the individual continues to mature, these various functions may then decline at differing rates. At all times throughout the life cycle, though, the individual is utilizing all his or her attentional resources as efficiently as possible. It is impossible to do otherwise.

CFD therapists should, therefore, keep in mind that an individual's attention is a limited-resource, limited capacity, hybrid-autonomous system. As such, we understand the attentional system will naturally tend toward optimized resource utilization and maximized efficiency as it integrates with other primary cognitive functions. Thus, we do not attempt to isolate and develop the various attentional functions inasmuch as the overall attentional system will automatically adjust and switch and balance the functions despite our dedicated, arduous efforts. We instead concentrate on develop the subnetworks (alerting, orienting, and executive control) as indicated by weak functional areas. For this reason it is vital for therapists to understand the functions as observable behaviors that should be mapped to their respective attention subnetworks.


Citations

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 McDowd, Joan M. (September 2007). “An Overview of Attention: Behavior and Brain.” Journal of Neurologic Physical Therapy. vol. 31, no. 3, pp 98-103. Article Link.
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Sarter, Martin, et. al. (May 2001). “The Cognitive Neuroscience of Sustained Attention: Where top-down meets bottom-up.” Brain Research Reviews. vol. 35, no. 2, pp 146-160. Article Link.
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 Moore, Robert Davis, et. al. (November 26, 2015). “The Persistent Influence of Concussion on Attention, Executive Control and Neuroelectric Function in Preadolescent Children.” International Journal of Psychophysiology. vol. 8, no. 4, pp 339-354. Article Link.
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 McAvine, Laura P., et. al. (July 2012). “Sustained Attention, Attentional Selectivity, and Attentional Capacity Across the Lifespan.” Attention Perception & Psychophysics. vol. 74, no. 8. Article Link.
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 Lavie, Nilli, et. al. (September 1, 2004). “Load Theory of Selective Attention and Cognitive Control.” Journal of Experimental Psychology, General. vol. 133, no. 3, pp 339-354. Article Link.
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Fisher, Anna and Heidi Kloos (September 1, 2004). “Development of Selective Sustained Attention: The role of executive functions.” Executive Functions in Preschool-Age Children: Integrating measurement, neurodevelopment, and translational research ; J. A. Griffin, P. McCardle, & L. S. Freund (Eds.), pp 215-237. Chapter Link.
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 Commodari, Elena (August 2007). “Novice Readers: The Role of Focused, Selective, Distributed and Alternating Attention at the First Year of the Academic Curriculum.” i-Perception. vol. 8, no. 4, pp 1-18. Article Link.
  8. ^ Rapport, Mark D., et. al. (August 24, 2013). “Do Programs Designed to Train Working Memory, other Executive Functions, and Attention Benefit Children with ADHD? A meta-analytic review of cognitive, academic, and behavioral outcomes.” Clinical Psychology Review. vol. 33, no. 8, pp 339-354. Article Link.
  9. ^ 9.0 9.1 Fougnie, Daryl. (2008). “Chapter 1 The Relationship between Attention and Working Memory.” New Research on Short-Term Memory ; Noah B Johannsen. Chapter Link.
  10. ^ Kiyonaga, Anastasia and Tobias Egner (December 2012). “Working Memory as Internal Attention: Toward an Integrative Account of Internal and External Selection Processes.” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. vol. 20, no. 2. Article Link.
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 Taylor, J. G. (December 2007). “CODAM: A neural network model of consciousness.” Neural Networks. vol. 20, no. 9, pp 983-992. Article Link.
  12. ^ Taylor, J. G. (January 2008). “On the Relationship between Attention and Consciousness.” Journal of Psyche. vol. 14, no. 1. Article Link.
  13. ^ Rueda, M. Rosario, et. al. (October 10, 2015). “Cognitive Neuroscience of Attention: From brain mechanisms to individual differences in efficiency.” AIMS Neuroscience, vol. 2, no. 4, pp 183-202. Article Link
  14. ^ Oakes, Lisa M. et. al. (December 2002). “Developmental Changes in Endogeneous Control of Attention: The Role of Target Familiarity on Infants’ Distraction Latency.” Child Development, vol. 73, no. 6, pp 1644-1655. Article Link
  15. ^ Wen, Wen, et. al. (January 28, 2016). “Divided Attention and Processing Underlying Sense of Agency.” Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 7, no. 35, pp 1-8. Article Link
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