Difference between revisions of "Working Memory"
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<p>Working memory denotes that part of the memory system which allows for temporary storage of a limited amount of information and simultaneous manipulation of that information. The much older notion of “short-term” memory is included in the more widely accepted concept of that part of working memory which provides limited, temporary information storage.</p> | <p>Working memory denotes that part of the memory system which allows for temporary storage of a limited amount of information and simultaneous manipulation of that information. The much older notion of “short-term” memory is included in the more widely accepted concept of that part of working memory which provides limited, temporary information storage.</p> | ||
| − | + | <p>It was once believed that the capacity of an individual’s working memory is limited to seven items, plus or minus two, that could be stored. However, a growing body of research is demonstrating that working memory capacity can be deepened, broadened, and made more flexible. Moreover, research is demonstrating that increased working memory capacity has immediate far-reaching effects beyond remembering items or engaging in a conversation. For example, working memory development, when done therapeutically, can alter neural processes and stimulate neuroplastic change in the frontoparietal, dorsal-lateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, and striatum. Such changes are clinically observable and, if it is a clinical goal as may be the case for individuals undergoing SUD treatment, result in a marked increase in an individual’s cognitive control over their impulsivity.</p> | |
| − | <p>It was once believed that the capacity of an individual’s working memory is limited to seven items, plus or minus two, that could be stored. However a growing body of research is demonstrating that working memory capacity can be deepened, broadened, and made more flexible. Moreover, research is demonstrating that increased working memory capacity has immediate far-reaching effects beyond remembering items or engaging in a conversation. For example, working memory development, when done therapeutically, can alter neural processes and stimulate neuroplastic change in the frontoparietal, dorsal-lateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, and striatum. Such changes are clinically observable and, if it is a clinical goal as may be the case for individuals undergoing SUD treatment, result in a marked increase in an individual’s cognitive control over their impulsivity.</p> | ||
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<h2>Models of Working Memory</h2> | <h2>Models of Working Memory</h2> | ||
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<p>From a cognitive function development perspective, several models of working memory may be useful for developing therapeutic procedures.</p> | <p>From a cognitive function development perspective, several models of working memory may be useful for developing therapeutic procedures.</p> | ||
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<h3>Multicomponent Model</h3> | <h3>Multicomponent Model</h3> | ||
| − | + | <p>The multicomponent model of working memory was the leading view from 1974, when it was first presented by Baddeley and Hitch, to the early 2000s.<a href="#_edn1" name="_ednref1">[1]</a> Within this model, working memory is conceived of as having four primary components, each of which has capacities for information storage and manipulation, and which can communicate with one another and with long-term memory:</p> | |
| − | <p>The multicomponent model of working memory was the leading view from 1974, when it was first presented by Baddeley and Hitch, to the early 2000s.<a href="#_edn1" name="_ednref1">[1]</a> Within this model, working memory is conceived of as having four primary components, each of which | ||
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<ul> | <ul> | ||
| − | + | <li><strong>Phonological Loop</strong> – A “relatively modular system” comprised of transitory storage and a means of refreshing information in storage through vocal or subvocal rehearsal (i.e. repeating a grocery list to yourself on the way to the store).<a href="#_edn2" name="_ednref2">[2]</a> It is believed that the phonological loop supports the acquisition of language through the temporary storage of new words until they can be stored in phonological [[Function: long term memory | long term memory]]. The phonological loop is involved in receiving and processing auditory information, such as a list of digits. It also plays a role in [[Function: Logic and Reasoning | reasoning]], hence it popular pastime of talking to oneself while working out a difficult problem.</li> | |
| − | <li><strong>Phonological Loop</strong> – A “relatively modular system” comprised of | + | <li><strong>Visuospatial Sketchpad</strong> – The purpose of this component of working memory is to represent, maintain, and allow for an understanding of information that can be represented visually and/or primarily, and to do so in a way that persists across an individual’s irregular pattern of eye movements as he or she scans the visual world. For example, whereas the phonological loop is used directly to receive and process verbal directions to a location, the visuospatial sketchpad would be employed in translating the verbal description into a mental map. Alternatively, the sketchpad would be employed in interpreting a printed map relative to observed landmarks and topographical reliefs. As with verbal rehearsing to keep items in the phonological loop fresh, items stored in the visuospatial sketchpad may be refreshed by “covert motor performance that serves to reactivate the memory traces residing in sensory stores,” such as eye movements. Thus, by rehearsing the eye movements one might need to observe a physical object, the memory of the object is refreshed in the sketchpad.<a href="#_edn3" name="_ednref3">[3]</a></li> |
| − | + | <li><strong>Episodic Buffer</strong> – A passive component of working memory that allows “binding” of small chunks of multidimensional information – or episodes – from [[Function: long term memory | long term memory]], sensory inputs, and other working memory components. The episodic buffer seems to play an important role in consciousness.<a href="#_edn4" name="_ednref4">[4]</a> However, there is still ongoing academic discussion as to the operation, role, nature, and even the existence of this component.</li> | |
| − | <li><strong>Visuospatial Sketchpad</strong> – The purpose of this component of working memory is to represent, maintain, and allow for understanding of information that can be represented visually and/or | ||
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| − | <li><strong>Episodic Buffer</strong> – A passive component of working memory that allows “binding” of small chunks of multidimensional information – or episodes – from [[Function: long term memory | long term memory]], sensory inputs, and other working memory components. The episodic buffer seems to play an important role in consciousness.<a href="#_edn4" name="_ednref4">[4]</a> However, there is still ongoing academic discussion as to the operation, role, nature, and even existence of this component.</li> | ||
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<li><strong>Central Executive</strong> – Within the multicomponent model, the central executive is believed to be an attentional control system. While this component is believed to have limited processing capacity, it is crucial in overall control of an individual’s actions. The central executive function may be divided into two [[Functions: attention | attentional]] subsystems: an automatic system responsible for handling well-learned or habitual behaviors, and the so-called Supervisory Attentional System which freely draws from long-term memory and other working memory components to postulate on possible outcomes to a given situation, and then chooses the solution deemed most desirable.</li> | <li><strong>Central Executive</strong> – Within the multicomponent model, the central executive is believed to be an attentional control system. While this component is believed to have limited processing capacity, it is crucial in overall control of an individual’s actions. The central executive function may be divided into two [[Functions: attention | attentional]] subsystems: an automatic system responsible for handling well-learned or habitual behaviors, and the so-called Supervisory Attentional System which freely draws from long-term memory and other working memory components to postulate on possible outcomes to a given situation, and then chooses the solution deemed most desirable.</li> | ||
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</ul> | </ul> | ||
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<h3>Global Workspace Theory</h3> | <h3>Global Workspace Theory</h3> | ||
| − | + | <p>The Global Workspace Theory postulates that the brain is comprised of a highly interconnected network of specialized processes, what Baars denoted as “a brainweb.”<a href="#_edn5" name="_ednref5">[5]</a> Coordination and control of this web take place through an individual’s consciousness – via an architecture which is like, but not necessarily identical to the multicomponent model’s episodic buffer. This theory allows for multiple, distinct, and separately acting conscious activities – e.g. auditory and visual consciousness, each capable of being willfully activated, each located in a different part of the brain. Similar to the central executive component of the multicomponent model, an individual’s activation of conscious functions requires utilization of the [[function: attention | selective attention system]] under control of both the frontal executive cortex and automated centers such as the amygdala.</p> | |
| − | <p>The Global Workspace Theory postulates that the brain is comprised of a highly interconnected network of specialized processes, what Baars denoted as “a brainweb.”<a href="#_edn5" name="_ednref5">[5]</a> Coordination and control of this web | ||
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<p>Recently functional connectivity analyses have lent support to the Global Workplace Theory. Based on such analyses, researchers are beginning to understand the way functional neural networks can be reorganized based on higher cognitive loads, particularly when stimulated with [[Procedures: N-Back | n-back]] working memory tasks.<a href="#_edn6" name="_ednref6">[6]</a></p> | <p>Recently functional connectivity analyses have lent support to the Global Workplace Theory. Based on such analyses, researchers are beginning to understand the way functional neural networks can be reorganized based on higher cognitive loads, particularly when stimulated with [[Procedures: N-Back | n-back]] working memory tasks.<a href="#_edn6" name="_ednref6">[6]</a></p> | ||
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<h3>Bayesian Probabilistic Inference</h3> | <h3>Bayesian Probabilistic Inference</h3> | ||
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<p>Also termed “The Bayesian Brain,” this model builds off the Global Workspace Theory to describe how unconscious backstage processes can guide decision-making processes under conditions of uncertainty. Three main principles are worth noting:</p> | <p>Also termed “The Bayesian Brain,” this model builds off the Global Workspace Theory to describe how unconscious backstage processes can guide decision-making processes under conditions of uncertainty. Three main principles are worth noting:</p> | ||
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<ul> | <ul> | ||
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<li>Activation of prefrontal cortex and hippocampus neural networks allow the individual to determine, albeit without conscious awareness, a prediction error and to infer an evaluation of current experience based on prior experiences.</li> | <li>Activation of prefrontal cortex and hippocampus neural networks allow the individual to determine, albeit without conscious awareness, a prediction error and to infer an evaluation of current experience based on prior experiences.</li> | ||
| − | + | <li>Neural systems within the prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia, and insular cortex derive or interpret familiarity with a given stimulus based on the stimuli’s salience, and thereby merge prior experiences with current beliefs about that stimuli</li> | |
| − | <li>Neural systems | + | <li>Activation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, visuospatial, and language centers allows processing of the exposure frequency to specific events in order for the individual to develop a belief system about the stimuli, leading to making predictions of how those stimuli will behave and how the individual should react should the context become uncertain.</li> |
| + | </ul> | ||
| + | <p>Within this model it is expected that there will be a certain level of epistemic foraging for information – that is, there exists some tendency within the individual to sample both intrinsic and extrinsic stimuli until the individual is able to ascertain which of the available predictions about an uncertain future is best, given prior beliefs and experiences. This concept becomes significant when developing and delivering therapeutic procedures for the purpose of stimulating neuroplastic processes to improve [[Recipients: mental health | mental health]].<a href="#_edn7" name="_ednref7">[7]</a></p> | ||
| + | <h1>Neurology of the Working Memory</h1> | ||
| + | <p>The ability to maintain a limited amount of information which can then be subjected to complex processing is not fully understood, but it appears to arise from an interaction between the [[Function: Attention | attentional system]] operating on perceptual information (i.e., information gathered through the senses) and [[Function: long term memory | long term memory]] representations of the information or similar information.<a href="#_edn8" name="_ednref8">[8]</a></p> | ||
| + | <h2>Function location in the brain</h2> | ||
| + | <p>Brain regions involved in maintaining and manipulating information in working memory will vary with the type of information and the process of manipulation. Generally, those regions of the brain responsible for processing various forms of sensory information play a critical part in both information maintenance and manipulation.</p> | ||
| + | <p>Also, the prefrontal cortex (PFC) has been shown to play a critical role in information resiliency during working memory tasks – especially during tasks in which the individual is required to process irrelevant stimulus. Though there is as of yet no fixed consensus on the details of PFC functional organization, there is broad empirical support for the following regional specificity within the PFC:</p> | ||
| + | <ul> | ||
| + | <li>Left ventral PFC appears to be more involved in verbal tasks, whereas the right dorsal region is more involved in spacial tasks;</li> | ||
| + | <li>Dorsolateral PFC is more involved with updating and ordering than the maintenance of working memory content.</li> | ||
| + | </ul> | ||
| + | <p>Alongside the PFC, the parietal cortex (PC) is actively involved in working memory:</p> | ||
| + | <ul> | ||
| + | <li>The superior parietal cortex is involved with executive control functions<a href="#_edn9" name="_ednref9">[9]</a> and selective attention;<a href="#_edn10" name="_ednref10">[10]</a></li> | ||
| + | <li>Bilateral activation of the PC, with lateralization toward the right hemisphere, is involved in spatial working memory tasks.<a href="#_edn11" name="_ednref11">[11]</a></li> | ||
| + | </ul> | ||
| + | <p>Other locations of working memory functional locations in the brain are well documented in neuroimaging research.<a href="#_edn12" name="_ednref12">[12]</a></p> | ||
| + | <h2>Neurological workings</h2> | ||
| + | <p>There is support that the PFC stores information as complex abstractions rather than informational instantiations. Moreover, neurons in the frontal cortex appear to work with combinations of item and task-related content, supporting the concept that the PFC is primarily related to goal defining and achievement control functions.<sup>7,</sup> <a href="#_edn13" name="_ednref13">[13]</a> Understanding [[goal]] formation and acquisition, and how to develop the individual’s goal-related cognition is salient for developing, modifying, and delivering CFD therapies focused on neuroplastic stimulation, particularly as an adjunct therapy for [[Recipients: mental health | mental health]].</p> | ||
| + | <p>A hallmark of information maintenance and manipulation in the working memory system is the sustained activity of delayed-response tasks.<a href="#_edn14" name="_ednref14">[14]</a> Thus, the development procedures and delivery of working memory development therapies should incorporate tasks utilizing a slowing metronome over an increasing period.</p> | ||
| + | <h2>Developing working memory with directed therapy</h2> | ||
| + | <p>The traditional view of working memory is that it is a stable cognitive trait in individuals – that is, its capacity and functionality are relatively fixed and resistant to change. Recent studies, however, have demonstrated that working memory can be developed with directed tasks and that such changes can be clinically measured with fMRI and PET scans.<a href="#_edn15" name="_ednref15">[15]</a> <a href="#_edn16" name="_ednref16">[16]</a> <a href="#_edn17" name="_ednref17">[17]</a> <a href="#_edn18" name="_ednref18">[18]</a> At issue, though, is the efficacy of training modality for working memory development, particularly as it relates to generating long-lasting and far-reaching effects. Specifically, activities utilizing computerized tasks are of limited efficaciousness.<sup>8</sup> <a href="#_edn19" name="_ednref19">[19]</a> <a href="#_edn20" name="_ednref20">[20]</a> <a href="#_edn21" name="_ednref21">[21]</a> <a href="#_edn22" name="_ednref22">[22]</a> Conversely, personalized, repeated, adaptive, increasingly difficult working memory tasks have been shown efficacious in producing far-reaching and long-lasting results.<a href="#_edn23" name="_ednref23">[23]</a> <a href="#_edn24" name="_ednref24">[24]</a></p> | ||
| + | <h1>Working Memory and Life</h1> | ||
| + | <p>Narrative – capture our broad experience / antidotal information</p> | ||
| + | <h2>Narrative on life impact if this function is low</h2> | ||
| + | <p>Narrative – drill down</p> | ||
| + | <h2>Narrative on what a person can do with this function at a given level</h2> | ||
| + | <p>Narrative – more capture of broad experience / antidotal information, drilled down</p> | ||
| + | <h2>Other life impact narrative</h2> | ||
| + | <p>Narrative – if this section is not needed, just delete.</p> | ||
| + | <h1>How to Develop this Function</h1> | ||
| + | <p>Narrative – this is where we divulge our intellectual property in technical detail; will be heavy with internal wiki links. Please make the link inline (not endnote style) using the style [[category: internal link | link text]].</p> | ||
| + | <h2>Tools Used</h2> | ||
| + | <p>This section will link to the TOOLS category</p> | ||
| + | <h2>Techniques Used</h2> | ||
| + | <p>This section will link to the PROCEDURES category</p> | ||
| + | <h2>Integration with other cognitive functions</h2> | ||
| + | <p>This section will link to the FUNCTIONS category</p> | ||
| + | <h2>Modifications for primary recipient groups</h2> | ||
| + | <p>This section and its subsections will link to the various RECIPIENT category and subcategories</p> | ||
| + | <h3>1<sup>st</sup> – 12<sup>th</sup> Grade Academic</h3> | ||
| + | <p>This section deep dives for CCFDT grade 4 theoretical understanding</p> | ||
| + | <h3>Adult Academic / Work / General Mental Health</h3> | ||
| + | <p>This section deep dives for CCFDT grade 3 theoretical understanding</p> | ||
| + | <h3>CFD Therapy in relation to Medical Needs (e.g., Downs Syndrome, Dialysis, Heart Disease, etc)</h3> | ||
| + | <p>This section deep dives for CCFDT grade 2 theoretical understanding</p> | ||
| + | <h3>CFD Therapy in relation to Mental or Behavioral Health Needs (e.g., SUD, Schizophrenia, BP, etc)</h3> | ||
| + | <p>This section deep dives for CCFDT grade 1 theoretical understanding</p> | ||
| + | <h1>Reference to the Curated Research</h1> | ||
| + | <p>Here you can add other references which may not have made it into the endnotes. Use the {{See also | reference}} format.</p> | ||
| + | <p> </p> | ||
| + | <hr /> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref1" name="_edn1">[1]</a> Baddeley, Allen and Graham J. Hitch (2010). “Working Memory.” Scholarpedia, 5(2) : 3015 [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Working_memory Artic<em>le Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref2" name="_edn2">[2]</a> Baddely, Allen (Janury. 2012). “Working Memory: Theories, Models, and Controversies.” <em>Annual Review of Psychology</em>, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 1–29., [https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100422 <em>Article Link]</em>.</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref3" name="_edn3">[3]</a> Buchsbaum, BR. and M. D’Esposito (2008).<em> Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference</em>. Academic Press. Elsevier Ltd: Amsterdam. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/referencework/9780123705099/learning-and-memory-a-comprehensive-reference#book-info<em> Reference Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref4" name="_edn4">[4]</a> Baars, Benard J. “Consciousness.” <em>Scholapedia</em>, 10(8) : 2207. [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Consciousness <em>Article Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref5" name="_edn5">[5]</a> Baars, Bernard J. (October 2003). “The Global Brainweb: An Update on Global Workspace Theory.” <em>Science and Consciousness Review</em>. [http://cogweb.ucla.edu/CogSci/Baars-update_03.html <em>Article Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref6" name="_edn6">[6]</a> Finc, K. <em>et. al.</em> (April 22, 2017). “Transition of the Functional Brain Network Related to Increasing Cognitive Demands.” <em>Human Brain Mapping</em>. vol. 37, no. 7. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/hbm.23621 <em>Research Article</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref7" name="_edn7">[7]</a> Brooks, Samantha J. <em>et. al.</em> (September 22, 2017). “The Role of Working Memory for Cognitive Control in Anorexia Nervosa versus Substance Use Disorder.” <em>Frontiers in Psychology | Cognition</em>. vol. 8. [https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01651/full <em>Article Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref8" name="_edn8">[8]</a> Eriksson, Johan, <em>et. al.</em> (October 7, 2015). “Neurocognitive Architecture of Working Memory.” <em>Neuron</em>. vol. 8, no. 1, pp 33-46. [https://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(15)00777-1?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0896627315007771%3Fshowall%3Dtrue <em>Article Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref9" name="_edn9">[9]</a> Koenigs, Michael, <em>et. al</em>. (November 25, 2009). “Manipulation of Information in Working Memory.” <em>Journal of Neuroscience</em> vol. 29, no. 47. [https://www.jneurosci.org/content/29/47/14980.full <em>Article Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref10" name="_edn10">[10]</a> Awh, E, <em>et. al.</em> (2006). “Interactions Between Attention and Working Memory.” <em>Neuroscience</em> vol. 139, pp 201-208. [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.178.1909&rep=rep1&type=pdf <em>Article Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref11" name="_edn11">[11]</a> Nee, Derek Evan, et. al. (February 2013). “A Meta-Analysis of Executive Components of Working Memory.” <em>Cerebral Cortex</em> vol 23, no. 2, pp 264-282. [https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/23/2/264/283011 <em>Article Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref12" name="_edn12">[12]</a> Wagner, Tor D and Edward E Smith (2003). “Neuroimaging Studies of Working Memory: A meta-analysis.” <em>Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience</em>, vol 3, no. 4. [https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758%2FCABN.3.4.255.pdf <em>Article Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref13" name="_edn13">[13]</a> Brooks, Samantha J. (January 16, 2016). “A Debate on Working Memory and Cognitive Control: Can we learn about the treatment of substance use disorders from the neural correlates of anorexia nervosa?” <em>BMC Psychiatry</em>. vol. 16, no. 10. [https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-016-0714-z <em>Article Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref14" name="_edn14">[14]</a> Goldman-Rakic, P.S. (March 1995). “Cellular Basis of Working Memory.” <em>Neuron</em>, vol 13, no. 3, pp 477-485. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0896627395903046 <em>Article Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref15" name="_edn15">[15]</a> Dahlin, Erika (2009). <em>Train your Brain: Updating, transfer, and neural changes.</em> Doctoral Dissertation, Department of Integrative Medical Biology, University of Sweden. [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8e7a/40b4d7acb08eb260bb55d1a689be1c5b0eef.pdf <em>Dissertation Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref16" name="_edn16">[16]</a> Klingberg, Torkel (July 1, 2010). “Training and Plasticity of Working Memory.” <em>Trends in Cognitive Sciences</em>, vol 14, no. 7, pp317-324. [https://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/users/se367/10/klingberg2010.pdf <em>Article Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref17" name="_edn17">[17]</a> McNab, Fiona,<em> et. al</em>. (February 6, 2009). “Changes in Cortical Dopamine D1 Receptor Binding Associated with Cognitive Training.” <em>Science</em>, vol. 323, no. 5915, pp 800-802. [https://science.sciencemag.org/content/323/5915/800.full <em>Article Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref18" name="_edn18">[18]</a> Bäckman, Lars, <em>et. al</em>. (August 5, 2011). “Effects of Working Memory Training on Striatal Dopamine Release.” <em>Science</em>, vol. 333, no. 6043, pp 718. [https://science.sciencemag.org/content/333/6043/718 <em>Article Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref19" name="_edn19">[19]</a> Van de Ven, Renate M, <em>et. al.</em> (November 16, 2017). “The Influence of Computer-Based Cognitive Flexibility Training on Subjective Cognitive Well-Being after a Stroke: A multi-center randomized controlled trial.” <em>PLoS ONE</em>, vol. 12, no. 11. [https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0187582 <em>Article Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref20" name="_edn20">[20]</a> Aasvik, Julie K. <em>et. al.</em> (January 6, 2017). “Effectiveness of Working Memory Training among Subjects on Sick Leave Due to Complex Symptoms.” <em>Frontiers in Psychology</em>, vol. 7, no. 2003. [https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02003/full <em>Article Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref21" name="_edn21">[21]</a> Melby-Lervåg, Monica and Charles Hulme (2013) “Working Memory Training Effective? A Meta-Analytic Review.” <em>Developmental Psychology</em>, vol. 49, no. 2, pp 270-291. [https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/dev-49-2-270.pdf <em>Article Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref22" name="_edn22">[22]</a> Redick, Thomas S.<em> et. al</em>. (2013). “No Evidence of Intelligence Improvements after Working Memory Training: A randomized placebo-controlled study.” <em>Journal of Experimental Psychology: General</em>, vol. 142, no. 2, pp 359-379. [https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0029082 <em>Article Link</em>].</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref23" name="_edn23">[23]</a> Chan, Sharon, <em>et. al.</em> (June 4, 2019). “Far-Transfer Effects of Strategy-Based Working Memory Training.” <em>Frontiers in Psychology</em>, vol. 10, no. 1285. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6558153/ <em>Article Link]</em>.</p> | ||
| + | <p><a href="#_ednref24" name="_edn24">[24]</a> Kundu, Bornali, <em>et. al.</em> (May 15, 2015). “Strengthened Effective Connectivity Underlies Transfer of Working Memory Training to Tests of Short-Term Memory and Attention.” <em>Journal of Neuroscience</em>, vol. 33, no. 20, pp 8705-8715. [https://www.jneurosci.org/content/33/20/8705.full <em>Article Link</em>].</p> | ||
Revision as of 20:53, 14 September 2019
Contents
What is Working Memory
Working memory denotes that part of the memory system which allows for temporary storage of a limited amount of information and simultaneous manipulation of that information. The much older notion of “short-term” memory is included in the more widely accepted concept of that part of working memory which provides limited, temporary information storage.
It was once believed that the capacity of an individual’s working memory is limited to seven items, plus or minus two, that could be stored. However, a growing body of research is demonstrating that working memory capacity can be deepened, broadened, and made more flexible. Moreover, research is demonstrating that increased working memory capacity has immediate far-reaching effects beyond remembering items or engaging in a conversation. For example, working memory development, when done therapeutically, can alter neural processes and stimulate neuroplastic change in the frontoparietal, dorsal-lateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, and striatum. Such changes are clinically observable and, if it is a clinical goal as may be the case for individuals undergoing SUD treatment, result in a marked increase in an individual’s cognitive control over their impulsivity.
Models of Working Memory
From a cognitive function development perspective, several models of working memory may be useful for developing therapeutic procedures.
Multicomponent Model
The multicomponent model of working memory was the leading view from 1974, when it was first presented by Baddeley and Hitch, to the early 2000s.<a href="#_edn1" name="_ednref1">[1]</a> Within this model, working memory is conceived of as having four primary components, each of which has capacities for information storage and manipulation, and which can communicate with one another and with long-term memory:
- Phonological Loop – A “relatively modular system” comprised of transitory storage and a means of refreshing information in storage through vocal or subvocal rehearsal (i.e. repeating a grocery list to yourself on the way to the store).<a href="#_edn2" name="_ednref2">[2]</a> It is believed that the phonological loop supports the acquisition of language through the temporary storage of new words until they can be stored in phonological long term memory. The phonological loop is involved in receiving and processing auditory information, such as a list of digits. It also plays a role in reasoning, hence it popular pastime of talking to oneself while working out a difficult problem.
- Visuospatial Sketchpad – The purpose of this component of working memory is to represent, maintain, and allow for an understanding of information that can be represented visually and/or primarily, and to do so in a way that persists across an individual’s irregular pattern of eye movements as he or she scans the visual world. For example, whereas the phonological loop is used directly to receive and process verbal directions to a location, the visuospatial sketchpad would be employed in translating the verbal description into a mental map. Alternatively, the sketchpad would be employed in interpreting a printed map relative to observed landmarks and topographical reliefs. As with verbal rehearsing to keep items in the phonological loop fresh, items stored in the visuospatial sketchpad may be refreshed by “covert motor performance that serves to reactivate the memory traces residing in sensory stores,” such as eye movements. Thus, by rehearsing the eye movements one might need to observe a physical object, the memory of the object is refreshed in the sketchpad.<a href="#_edn3" name="_ednref3">[3]</a>
- Episodic Buffer – A passive component of working memory that allows “binding” of small chunks of multidimensional information – or episodes – from long term memory, sensory inputs, and other working memory components. The episodic buffer seems to play an important role in consciousness.<a href="#_edn4" name="_ednref4">[4]</a> However, there is still ongoing academic discussion as to the operation, role, nature, and even the existence of this component.
- Central Executive – Within the multicomponent model, the central executive is believed to be an attentional control system. While this component is believed to have limited processing capacity, it is crucial in overall control of an individual’s actions. The central executive function may be divided into two attentional subsystems: an automatic system responsible for handling well-learned or habitual behaviors, and the so-called Supervisory Attentional System which freely draws from long-term memory and other working memory components to postulate on possible outcomes to a given situation, and then chooses the solution deemed most desirable.
Global Workspace Theory
The Global Workspace Theory postulates that the brain is comprised of a highly interconnected network of specialized processes, what Baars denoted as “a brainweb.”<a href="#_edn5" name="_ednref5">[5]</a> Coordination and control of this web take place through an individual’s consciousness – via an architecture which is like, but not necessarily identical to the multicomponent model’s episodic buffer. This theory allows for multiple, distinct, and separately acting conscious activities – e.g. auditory and visual consciousness, each capable of being willfully activated, each located in a different part of the brain. Similar to the central executive component of the multicomponent model, an individual’s activation of conscious functions requires utilization of the selective attention system under control of both the frontal executive cortex and automated centers such as the amygdala.
Recently functional connectivity analyses have lent support to the Global Workplace Theory. Based on such analyses, researchers are beginning to understand the way functional neural networks can be reorganized based on higher cognitive loads, particularly when stimulated with n-back working memory tasks.<a href="#_edn6" name="_ednref6">[6]</a>
Bayesian Probabilistic Inference
Also termed “The Bayesian Brain,” this model builds off the Global Workspace Theory to describe how unconscious backstage processes can guide decision-making processes under conditions of uncertainty. Three main principles are worth noting:
- Activation of prefrontal cortex and hippocampus neural networks allow the individual to determine, albeit without conscious awareness, a prediction error and to infer an evaluation of current experience based on prior experiences.
- Neural systems within the prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia, and insular cortex derive or interpret familiarity with a given stimulus based on the stimuli’s salience, and thereby merge prior experiences with current beliefs about that stimuli
- Activation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, visuospatial, and language centers allows processing of the exposure frequency to specific events in order for the individual to develop a belief system about the stimuli, leading to making predictions of how those stimuli will behave and how the individual should react should the context become uncertain.
Within this model it is expected that there will be a certain level of epistemic foraging for information – that is, there exists some tendency within the individual to sample both intrinsic and extrinsic stimuli until the individual is able to ascertain which of the available predictions about an uncertain future is best, given prior beliefs and experiences. This concept becomes significant when developing and delivering therapeutic procedures for the purpose of stimulating neuroplastic processes to improve mental health.<a href="#_edn7" name="_ednref7">[7]</a>
Neurology of the Working Memory
The ability to maintain a limited amount of information which can then be subjected to complex processing is not fully understood, but it appears to arise from an interaction between the attentional system operating on perceptual information (i.e., information gathered through the senses) and long term memory representations of the information or similar information.<a href="#_edn8" name="_ednref8">[8]</a>
Function location in the brain
Brain regions involved in maintaining and manipulating information in working memory will vary with the type of information and the process of manipulation. Generally, those regions of the brain responsible for processing various forms of sensory information play a critical part in both information maintenance and manipulation.
Also, the prefrontal cortex (PFC) has been shown to play a critical role in information resiliency during working memory tasks – especially during tasks in which the individual is required to process irrelevant stimulus. Though there is as of yet no fixed consensus on the details of PFC functional organization, there is broad empirical support for the following regional specificity within the PFC:
- Left ventral PFC appears to be more involved in verbal tasks, whereas the right dorsal region is more involved in spacial tasks;
- Dorsolateral PFC is more involved with updating and ordering than the maintenance of working memory content.
Alongside the PFC, the parietal cortex (PC) is actively involved in working memory:
- The superior parietal cortex is involved with executive control functions<a href="#_edn9" name="_ednref9">[9]</a> and selective attention;<a href="#_edn10" name="_ednref10">[10]</a>
- Bilateral activation of the PC, with lateralization toward the right hemisphere, is involved in spatial working memory tasks.<a href="#_edn11" name="_ednref11">[11]</a>
Other locations of working memory functional locations in the brain are well documented in neuroimaging research.<a href="#_edn12" name="_ednref12">[12]</a>
Neurological workings
There is support that the PFC stores information as complex abstractions rather than informational instantiations. Moreover, neurons in the frontal cortex appear to work with combinations of item and task-related content, supporting the concept that the PFC is primarily related to goal defining and achievement control functions.7, <a href="#_edn13" name="_ednref13">[13]</a> Understanding goal formation and acquisition, and how to develop the individual’s goal-related cognition is salient for developing, modifying, and delivering CFD therapies focused on neuroplastic stimulation, particularly as an adjunct therapy for mental health.
A hallmark of information maintenance and manipulation in the working memory system is the sustained activity of delayed-response tasks.<a href="#_edn14" name="_ednref14">[14]</a> Thus, the development procedures and delivery of working memory development therapies should incorporate tasks utilizing a slowing metronome over an increasing period.
Developing working memory with directed therapy
The traditional view of working memory is that it is a stable cognitive trait in individuals – that is, its capacity and functionality are relatively fixed and resistant to change. Recent studies, however, have demonstrated that working memory can be developed with directed tasks and that such changes can be clinically measured with fMRI and PET scans.<a href="#_edn15" name="_ednref15">[15]</a> <a href="#_edn16" name="_ednref16">[16]</a> <a href="#_edn17" name="_ednref17">[17]</a> <a href="#_edn18" name="_ednref18">[18]</a> At issue, though, is the efficacy of training modality for working memory development, particularly as it relates to generating long-lasting and far-reaching effects. Specifically, activities utilizing computerized tasks are of limited efficaciousness.8 <a href="#_edn19" name="_ednref19">[19]</a> <a href="#_edn20" name="_ednref20">[20]</a> <a href="#_edn21" name="_ednref21">[21]</a> <a href="#_edn22" name="_ednref22">[22]</a> Conversely, personalized, repeated, adaptive, increasingly difficult working memory tasks have been shown efficacious in producing far-reaching and long-lasting results.<a href="#_edn23" name="_ednref23">[23]</a> <a href="#_edn24" name="_ednref24">[24]</a>
Working Memory and Life
Narrative – capture our broad experience / antidotal information
Narrative on life impact if this function is low
Narrative – drill down
Narrative on what a person can do with this function at a given level
Narrative – more capture of broad experience / antidotal information, drilled down
Other life impact narrative
Narrative – if this section is not needed, just delete.
How to Develop this Function
Narrative – this is where we divulge our intellectual property in technical detail; will be heavy with internal wiki links. Please make the link inline (not endnote style) using the style.
Tools Used
This section will link to the TOOLS category
Techniques Used
This section will link to the PROCEDURES category
Integration with other cognitive functions
This section will link to the FUNCTIONS category
Modifications for primary recipient groups
This section and its subsections will link to the various RECIPIENT category and subcategories
1st – 12th Grade Academic
This section deep dives for CCFDT grade 4 theoretical understanding
Adult Academic / Work / General Mental Health
This section deep dives for CCFDT grade 3 theoretical understanding
CFD Therapy in relation to Medical Needs (e.g., Downs Syndrome, Dialysis, Heart Disease, etc)
This section deep dives for CCFDT grade 2 theoretical understanding
CFD Therapy in relation to Mental or Behavioral Health Needs (e.g., SUD, Schizophrenia, BP, etc)
This section deep dives for CCFDT grade 1 theoretical understanding
Reference to the Curated Research
Here you can add other references which may not have made it into the endnotes. Use the Template:See also format.
<a href="#_ednref1" name="_edn1">[1]</a> Baddeley, Allen and Graham J. Hitch (2010). “Working Memory.” Scholarpedia, 5(2) : 3015 Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref2" name="_edn2">[2]</a> Baddely, Allen (Janury. 2012). “Working Memory: Theories, Models, and Controversies.” Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 1–29., Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref3" name="_edn3">[3]</a> Buchsbaum, BR. and M. D’Esposito (2008). Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference. Academic Press. Elsevier Ltd: Amsterdam. Reference Link.
<a href="#_ednref4" name="_edn4">[4]</a> Baars, Benard J. “Consciousness.” Scholapedia, 10(8) : 2207. Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref5" name="_edn5">[5]</a> Baars, Bernard J. (October 2003). “The Global Brainweb: An Update on Global Workspace Theory.” Science and Consciousness Review. Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref6" name="_edn6">[6]</a> Finc, K. et. al. (April 22, 2017). “Transition of the Functional Brain Network Related to Increasing Cognitive Demands.” Human Brain Mapping. vol. 37, no. 7. Research Article.
<a href="#_ednref7" name="_edn7">[7]</a> Brooks, Samantha J. et. al. (September 22, 2017). “The Role of Working Memory for Cognitive Control in Anorexia Nervosa versus Substance Use Disorder.” Frontiers in Psychology | Cognition. vol. 8. Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref8" name="_edn8">[8]</a> Eriksson, Johan, et. al. (October 7, 2015). “Neurocognitive Architecture of Working Memory.” Neuron. vol. 8, no. 1, pp 33-46. Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref9" name="_edn9">[9]</a> Koenigs, Michael, et. al. (November 25, 2009). “Manipulation of Information in Working Memory.” Journal of Neuroscience vol. 29, no. 47. Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref10" name="_edn10">[10]</a> Awh, E, et. al. (2006). “Interactions Between Attention and Working Memory.” Neuroscience vol. 139, pp 201-208. Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref11" name="_edn11">[11]</a> Nee, Derek Evan, et. al. (February 2013). “A Meta-Analysis of Executive Components of Working Memory.” Cerebral Cortex vol 23, no. 2, pp 264-282. Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref12" name="_edn12">[12]</a> Wagner, Tor D and Edward E Smith (2003). “Neuroimaging Studies of Working Memory: A meta-analysis.” Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience, vol 3, no. 4. Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref13" name="_edn13">[13]</a> Brooks, Samantha J. (January 16, 2016). “A Debate on Working Memory and Cognitive Control: Can we learn about the treatment of substance use disorders from the neural correlates of anorexia nervosa?” BMC Psychiatry. vol. 16, no. 10. Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref14" name="_edn14">[14]</a> Goldman-Rakic, P.S. (March 1995). “Cellular Basis of Working Memory.” Neuron, vol 13, no. 3, pp 477-485. Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref15" name="_edn15">[15]</a> Dahlin, Erika (2009). Train your Brain: Updating, transfer, and neural changes. Doctoral Dissertation, Department of Integrative Medical Biology, University of Sweden. Dissertation Link.
<a href="#_ednref16" name="_edn16">[16]</a> Klingberg, Torkel (July 1, 2010). “Training and Plasticity of Working Memory.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences, vol 14, no. 7, pp317-324. Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref17" name="_edn17">[17]</a> McNab, Fiona, et. al. (February 6, 2009). “Changes in Cortical Dopamine D1 Receptor Binding Associated with Cognitive Training.” Science, vol. 323, no. 5915, pp 800-802. Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref18" name="_edn18">[18]</a> Bäckman, Lars, et. al. (August 5, 2011). “Effects of Working Memory Training on Striatal Dopamine Release.” Science, vol. 333, no. 6043, pp 718. Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref19" name="_edn19">[19]</a> Van de Ven, Renate M, et. al. (November 16, 2017). “The Influence of Computer-Based Cognitive Flexibility Training on Subjective Cognitive Well-Being after a Stroke: A multi-center randomized controlled trial.” PLoS ONE, vol. 12, no. 11. Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref20" name="_edn20">[20]</a> Aasvik, Julie K. et. al. (January 6, 2017). “Effectiveness of Working Memory Training among Subjects on Sick Leave Due to Complex Symptoms.” Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 7, no. 2003. Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref21" name="_edn21">[21]</a> Melby-Lervåg, Monica and Charles Hulme (2013) “Working Memory Training Effective? A Meta-Analytic Review.” Developmental Psychology, vol. 49, no. 2, pp 270-291. Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref22" name="_edn22">[22]</a> Redick, Thomas S. et. al. (2013). “No Evidence of Intelligence Improvements after Working Memory Training: A randomized placebo-controlled study.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, vol. 142, no. 2, pp 359-379. Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref23" name="_edn23">[23]</a> Chan, Sharon, et. al. (June 4, 2019). “Far-Transfer Effects of Strategy-Based Working Memory Training.” Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 10, no. 1285. Article Link.
<a href="#_ednref24" name="_edn24">[24]</a> Kundu, Bornali, et. al. (May 15, 2015). “Strengthened Effective Connectivity Underlies Transfer of Working Memory Training to Tests of Short-Term Memory and Attention.” Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 33, no. 20, pp 8705-8715. Article Link.
